Cancer Types
Common cancer types: symptoms, diagnostic methods and current treatment options.
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Thyroid Cancer: Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment
Sources reviewed by: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali OğulLast updated: October 2026
Thyroid cancer types, symptoms, diagnosis, surgery, radioactive iodine and targeted drug options in advanced disease. Medical oncology in Mersin.
Key information
| Definition | A malignant tumour arising from the thyroid gland |
|---|---|
| Main risks | Neck radiation in childhood, family history, hereditary syndromes |
| Common symptoms | Nodule or mass in the neck, hoarseness |
| Diagnosis | Ultrasound, fine-needle biopsy, molecular tests when needed |
| Treatment | Surgery, radioactive iodine, targeted drugs in advanced disease |
What is thyroid cancer?
Thyroid cancer develops from the thyroid gland at the front of the neck. The most common types are papillary and follicular carcinomas (differentiated thyroid cancer), which are well controlled with surgery in most patients. The less common medullary and anaplastic types have different biological features and are treated separately. Treatment is mostly carried out by endocrine surgery, endocrinology and nuclear medicine; medical oncology becomes involved particularly in advanced disease that does not respond to radioactive iodine and in the anaplastic type [1][2].
Risk factors
Radiation exposure to the neck in childhood, a family history of thyroid cancer and some hereditary syndromes (e.g. MEN2 – medullary type) are risk factors. It is more common in women [2][3].
What are the symptoms?
Most thyroid cancers cause no symptoms and are found as a nodule on ultrasound. A rapidly growing neck mass, hoarseness, difficulty swallowing or breathing and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck are findings that need assessment. The vast majority of thyroid nodules are benign [1][3].
Most of these complaints can also be caused by other conditions; complaints that persist or get worse need to be assessed by a doctor.
How is it diagnosed?
Thyroid ultrasound and TSH measurement are the first steps. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) is performed on nodules selected according to their ultrasound features, and the result is reported using the Bethesda system. Calcitonin and CEA are used in the medullary type, and CT or PET-CT in advanced disease. In advanced disease, testing for molecular changes such as BRAF, RET and NTRK influences the choice of treatment [1][4].
Staging
Staging follows the AJCC/UICC TNM system; in differentiated thyroid cancer, age (with a threshold of 55 years) is an important factor. In addition, the postoperative risk of recurrence (low, intermediate, high) determines the use of radioactive iodine and the intensity of follow-up [1][2].
Treatment options
- Surgery: Lobectomy or total thyroidectomy depending on tumour size and extent, with neck lymph node dissection when needed.
- Radioactive iodine (RAI): May be given by nuclear medicine after surgery in intermediate- and high-risk differentiated thyroid cancer.
- TSH suppression: The levothyroxine dose is adjusted according to the risk of recurrence.
- Advanced and RAI-refractory disease: Multikinase inhibitors such as lenvatinib or sorafenib; depending on the molecular change, selpercatinib/pralsetinib (RET), dabrafenib + trametinib (BRAF V600E) or larotrectinib/entrectinib (NTRK). In the medullary type, vandetanib, cabozantinib or RET inhibitors are among the options.
- Anaplastic thyroid cancer: A rapidly progressing type that requires rapid molecular testing (especially BRAF) and urgent multidisciplinary planning combining surgery, radiotherapy and systemic treatment [1][4][5].
Treatment is planned individually, taking into account the stage, tumour characteristics, general condition and the patient’s preferences. Not every option listed here is suitable for every patient.
Recent developments
Targeted drugs selected according to molecular test results have broadened treatment options in advanced and anaplastic thyroid cancer. Preoperative treatment with dabrafenib + trametinib is being investigated in BRAF-mutant anaplastic thyroid cancer [4][5].
Support and follow-up during treatment
During treatment, not only the anti-cancer drugs but also the patient’s general condition is monitored. Nausea, fatigue, loss of appetite, pain, infection risk and changes in mood are asked about at every visit; when needed, preventive medication, nutritional support, physiotherapy and psychosocial support are planned. In situations such as fever, shortness of breath, uncontrollable diarrhoea or vomiting, or new severe pain, it is advisable to contact the treatment team without waiting for the scheduled visit. Herbal products and supplements can interact with some cancer drugs, so the treatment team should be consulted before using them.
Follow-up uses neck ultrasound and thyroglobulin and anti-thyroglobulin antibody levels (calcitonin and CEA in the medullary type). Follow-up intervals are set according to the risk of recurrence.
Frequently asked questions
No. The vast majority of thyroid nodules are benign; a biopsy is performed on those selected according to their ultrasound features.
No. It is often not needed in low-risk patients; the decision is made according to the risk of recurrence together with endocrinology and nuclear medicine.
Medical oncology assessment is recommended when systemic treatment is considered: in progressive disease not responding to radioactive iodine, distant spread, or the medullary or anaplastic type.
After total thyroidectomy, thyroid hormone (levothyroxine) treatment is usually lifelong; the dose is adjusted during endocrinology follow-up.
Call +90 530 250 54 85 or write to the same number via WhatsApp. The outpatient clinic is open Monday to Friday, 08:00–16:00.
At the medical oncology outpatient clinic of Mersin University Faculty of Medicine Oncology Hospital, Çiftlikköy Campus, 33110 Yenişehir/Mersin, Türkiye. The assessment is done in person.
When needed, yes. The multidisciplinary tumour board meets every Friday from 09:00 to 13:00, and the sequence of surgery, radiotherapy and drug treatment is planned jointly.
Yes. A second opinion is a common way to clarify a treatment plan. Bring your pathology, imaging and discharge reports to the clinic for the assessment.
Pathology report, imaging reports and, if possible, the image CDs, discharge summary, recent blood tests and a list of the medicines you take. Translated copies are helpful if your documents are not in Turkish or English.
Medical oncology consultation for thyroid cancer in Mersin
If you have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer, or your diagnostic work-up is ongoing, you can apply for a medical oncology consultation with Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Oğul at Mersin University Faculty of Medicine Oncology Hospital (Çiftlikköy Campus, 33110 Yenişehir/Mersin, Türkiye). Medical oncology covers the planning of drug treatments such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and hormone therapy, the monitoring of side effects and follow-up after treatment. The hospital has a day treatment unit where drug treatments are given.
Treatment decisions are made by a team. When needed, patient files are discussed at the multidisciplinary tumour board, which meets every Friday from 09:00 to 13:00 with specialists from the relevant departments.
For appointments, call +90 530 250 54 85 or send a WhatsApp message to the same number with your name, diagnosis and reason for the request; you can also send your reports. The outpatient clinic is open Monday to Friday, 08:00–16:00. No diagnosis or treatment recommendation is given via WhatsApp; the assessment takes place in person at the clinic. Consultations are held in Turkish.
Appointment
Evaluation and second opinion
If you have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer or would like a second opinion on your current treatment plan, you can contact Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Oğul with your pathology report and imaging results.
This content is for information only; please consult your physician for diagnosis and treatment.
References
- ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines – Thyroid cancer. Accessed: October 2026. https://www.esmo.org/guidelines/esmo-clinical-practice-guidelines-endocrine-and-neuroendocrine-cancers
- American Thyroid Association Guidelines. Accessed: October 2026. https://www.thyroid.org/professionals/ata-professional-guidelines/
- NCI – Thyroid Cancer (PDQ). Accessed: October 2026. https://www.cancer.gov/types/thyroid
- NCCN Guidelines – Thyroid Carcinoma. Accessed: October 2026. https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/category_1
- ASCO Guideline – Management of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer. Accessed: October 2026. https://www.asco.org/practice-patients/guidelines
Links open external sources. The references were accessible as of October 2026.